Ciguatera Research

The objectives of CiguaTOX are to:

• Determine the spatio-temporal population dynamics of newly characterized ciguatoxin-producing Gambierdiscus super bug species.
• Translate Gambierdiscus cellular toxicity into toxin body burden in reef herbivores.
• Identify and characterize the environmental conditions and habitats that produce the highest abundances of Gambierdiscus super bugs.

The outputs of these objectives will be incorporated into a second-generation model of ciguatoxin flux into the reef food web. This model is a necessity before proactive management plans can be established to mitigate possible increases of CFP cases for the Caribbean region.

 

Schematic respresentation of the major components of CiguaMOD, the first-generation ciguatoxin flux model developed through CiguaHAB.

The Greater Caribbean Center for Ciguatera Research (GCCCR) has identified three Specific Aims to meet its goals to study ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) in the Greater Caribbean Region (GCR):

Specific Aim 1) Through the efforts of three Research Projects, we will (1) examine the role climate change plays in the intensification of CFP; (2) obtain a better understanding of the toxic metabolites produced by certain Gambierdiscus strains, and their fate in food webs; and (3) study the genotoxicity and impact on cellular metabolism caused by these metabolites upon exposure of human cells.

Specific Aim 2) Through our Community Engagement Core (CEC), we will translate the scientific findings into risk-based outputs for engagement and education activities for communities in the GCR.

Specific Aim 3) Through our Administrative Core, we will provide oversight, coordination, and integration of Center activities, build synergies outside of the GCCCR to further the impact of Center activities.

 

Proposed sampling sites (1) and (2) offshore Texas, (3) offshore Florida, (4) Florida Keys, (5) St. Thomas.  Arrows depict generalized surface currents.
Source: NOAA and University of Miami RSMAS

 

Illustration of the linkages between the research projects and the CEC.  The Administrative Core will ensure the lines of communication and data/resource sharing remain open and vibrant (represented by the arrows). 

The central hypothesis of this PIRE program is that toxigenic benthic dinoflagellates produce a suite of stable toxic metabolites driven by shifts in the epiphytic flora, available substrates, and environmental conditions. This hypothesis will be tested by examining the dynamics and persistence of Gambierdiscus super-bugs in reefs around the globe to better understand the production and fate of their toxic metabolites. Hypothesis testing will comprise three research objectives:

1) To evaluate epiphyte community diversity and macrophyte host selectivity across spatio-temporal scales and environmental gradients in coral reef ecosystems.

2) To characterize the complex metabolome of these communities, structurally elucidate key toxic metabolites, and develop methods and reference materials to evaluate their role.

3) Utilize chemical biomarkers (toxins, lipids, stable isotopes) in bio-indicator species, and model their fate in reef food webs.

 

The international PIRE team comprises six U.S. institutions and engages collaborators from six countries (Hong Kong, Cuba, Norway, Canada, Scotland, and Australia). These international partnerships are essential because:

• CFP is a natural phenomenon of global concern and due to the complexity of biological-chemical interactions it is poorly understood.
• There are no standardized detection methods or monitoring/management strategies for toxigenic benthic algae, hampering advancements on a global scale.
• International research programs prepare U.S. students to be part of a global scientific community fostering leadership skills critical to their success.

 

Proposed global field sites, collaborations, student exchanges, field classes, and workshops for PIRE.

CiguaHAB was a regional ECOHAB project that set out to (1) understand the dynamics and connectivity of the many Gambierdiscus species found in the Greater Caribbean Region (GCR), (2) examine how environmental factors influenced the growth and toxicity of these species, and (3) determine the fate of the ciguatoxins and their precursors once they entered the reef food web, related to environmental variation. The major findings of the CiguaHAB project were:

•  6 species of Gambierdiscus were found in the GCR (G. carolinianus, belizeanus, silvae, caribaeus, carpenteri, and sp. ribotype 2), one of which is 1000x more toxic than the others (silvae), thus representing the likely “super bug” in the region.
• The highest field toxicities were recorded in the spring months in St. Thomas, United States Virgin Islands with a delay in fish toxicity of several months observed in the data. This lag likely represents the time needed for trophic transfer of the toxin into the reef food web.
• Temperature was a key factor affecting Gambierdiscus abundance in field samples, although temperatures > 27 C hindered growth of the most toxic species, silvae.
• A numerical model was developed to simulate Gambierdiscus population dynamics and the trophic transfer of toxins. The model predicted that toxin loads into herbivorous fish would generally be highest in the fall months, and that, when present, turf algae represented the most likely vector via grazing. 

 

Locations of the four study sites in each region: Florida Keys (FLK) and St. Thomas (STT).

 

Abundance of the six Caribbean-endemic Gambierdiscus species within the colonal cultures established from the USVI.

1. Bennett, C.T., Robertson, A., Patterson, W.P. Accepted. First record of the invasive Indo-Pacific damselfish, Neopomacentrus cyanomos in the northern Gulf of Mexico. BioInvasions Records.
2. Catania, D., Richlen, M.L., Mak, Y.L., Morton, S.L., Laban, E.H., Xu, Y., Anderson, D.M, Chan, L.L., and Berumen, M.L. 2018. The Prevalence of Benthic Dinoflagellates Associated with Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the Central Red Sea. Harmful Algae 68: 206-216.
3. Loeffler, C.R., Robertson, A., Flores Quintana, H.A., Silander, M.C., Smith, T.B. and Olsen, D. 2018. Ciguatoxin prevalence in four commercial fish species along an oceanic exposure gradient in the US Virgin Islands. Environ Toxicol Chem. doi:10.1002/etc.4137.
4. Lozano-Duque, Y., M. Richlen, T.B. Smith, D.M. Anderson and D.L. Erdner. 2018. Development and validation of a PCR-RFLP assay for identification of Gambierdiscus species in the Greater Caribbean region. Journal of Applied Phycology. doi:10.1007.s10811-018-1491-5.
5. Parsons, M.L., Richlen, M.L., Robertson, A. 2018. Gambierdiscus. In: S.E. Shumway, J.M. Burkholder, and S. Morton (Eds.). Harmful Algae: A Compendium Desk Reference. Wiley. Connecticut Sea Grant College Program. CTSG-17-08.
6. Rumbold, D.R., Lienhardt, C., and M.L. Parsons. 2018. Mercury biomagnification through a coral reef ecosystem. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 75: 121-133. Bulletin.
7. Dahl, K.A., Patterson, W.F., Robertson, A. Ortmann, A. 2017. DNA barcoding significantly improves resolution of invasive lionfish diet in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Biological Invasions. doi:10.1007/s10530-017-1407-3.
8. Leynse, A.K., Parsons, M.L., and Thomas, S. 2017. Differences in the photoacclimation and photoprotection exhibited by two species of the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate genus, Gambierdiscus. Harmful Algae 70, 90-97.
9. Lyu, Y., Richlen, M.L., Sehein, T.R., Chinain, M., Adachi, M., Nishimura, T., Xu, Y., Parsons, M.L., Smith, T.B., Zheng, T. and Anderson, D.M., 2017. LSU rDNA based RFLP assays for the routine identification of Gambierdiscus Harmful Algae, 66, pp. 20-28.
10. Parsons, M.L., Brandt, A.L., Ellsworth, A., Leynse, A.K., Rains, L.K., and D.M. Anderson. 2017. Assessing the use of artificial substrates to monitor Gambierdiscus populations in the Florida Keys. Harmful Algae 68: 52-66.
11. Robertson, A. 2017. Prevalence and Risk of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning Toxins in U’u’(Myripristis berndtii) and Kole (Ctenochaetus strigosus) from inland waters within the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (PMNM) Sanctuary. Report to the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, National Center for Coastal Ocean Service, and NOAA National Ocean Service.
12. Sassenhagen, I. and D.L. Erdner. 2017. Microsatellite markers for the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus caribaeus from high-throughput sequencing data. Journal of Applied Phycology. Doi:10.1007/s10811=017=1076-8.
13. Stanca, E. and M.L. Parsons. 2017. Species diversity of phytoplankton along spatial and temporal gradients in the Florida Keys. Journal of Plankton Research: 1-19. Doi:10.1093/plankt/fbx006.
14. Brandt, A.L. Benthic community structure and responses to environmental drivers in the Florida Keys. Masters of Science Thesis, Florida Gulf Coast University.
15. Bray, C.   M.S. Thesis.  Effects of light intensity and salinity levels on dimethylsulfoniopropionate production in the potentially toxic dinoflagellate species Gambierdiscus belizeanus and Gambierdiscus carolinianus.
16. Gwinn, J., and Robertson, A. 2016. Understanding how algal toxins enter marine food webs. Explorations 8: 18-21 (and cover).
17. Leynse, A.K. 2016. Nutritional and Photophysiological Approaches to Identifying the Niche of Gambierdiscus: Insight into the Ecology of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning. Masters of Science Thesis, Florida Gulf Coast University.
18. Lopez, M. C., Ungaro, R. F. Baker, H. V., Moldawer, L. L., Robertson, A., Abbott, M., Roberts, S. M., Grattan, L. M., Morris, J. G.  Gene Expression Patterns in Peripheral Blood Leukocytes in Patients with Recurrent Ciguatera Fish Poisoning. Harmful Algae 57(B): 35-38.
19. Lozano-Duque, Y. 2016. Development and validation of PCR-RFLP assay for identification of Gambierdiscus species in the Greater Caribbean region. M.S thesis, University of Texas at Austin. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/41206.
20. Pitz, K., 2016. Trouble in the Tropics. Oceanus, 51(2), p. 60.
21. Pitz, K.J., 2016. Phenotypic diversity within two toxic dinoflagellate genera: environmental and transcriptomic studies of species diversity in Alexandrium and Gambierdiscus (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
22. Xu, Y., Richlen, M.L., Liefer, J.D., Robertson, A., Kulis, D., Smith, T.B., Parsons, M.L., and Anderson, D.M., 2016. Influence of Environmental Variables on Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) Growth and Distribution. PloS one 11(4), p.e0153197.
23. Loeffler, C.R., Richlen, M.L., Brandt, M.E., and Smith, T.B. 2015. Effects of grazing, nutrients, and depth on the ciguatera-causing dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus in the US Virgin Islands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 531, pp. 91-104.
24. Rains, L.K. 2015. On the epiphytic nature of Gambierdiscus in the Florida Keys. Masters of Science Thesis, Florida Gulf Coast University.
25. Rains, L.K. and Parsons, M.L., 2015. Gambierdiscus species exhibit different epiphytic behaviors toward a variety of macroalgal hosts. Harmful Algae, 49, pp. 29-39.
26. Robertson, A., Garcia, A.C., Flores Quintana, H.A., Smith, T.B., Castillo, B.F., Reale-Munroe, K., Gulli, D.A. et al. 2014. Invasive Lionfish (Pterois volitans): A Potential Human Health Threat for Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in Tropical Waters. Mar. Drugs, 12: 88-97.
27. Xu, Y., Richlen, M.L., Morton, S.L., Mak, Y.L., Chan, L.L., Tekiau, A., and D.M. Anderson. 2014. Distribution, abundance and diversity of Gambierdiscus from a ciguatera-endemic area in Marakei, Republic of Kiribati. Harmful Algae, 34: 56-68.
28. Sassenhagen, I., Y. Gao^‡, Y. Lozano-Duque^‡, M.L. Parsons, T.B. Smith, M. Richlen and D.L. Erdner (2018). Comparison of spatial and temporal genetic differentiation in a harmful dinoflagellate species emphasizes impact of local processes. Frontiers in Marine Science 5:393. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00393

1. Bennett, C., and Robertson, A. First record of the invasive Indo-Pacific damselfish, Neopomacentrus cyanomos in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of Mexico Graduate Student Symposium, Dauphin Island, Alabama, March 2-3, 2018. Poster.
2. Gwinn, J.K., Robertson, A. Smith, T.B., Patterson, W. Environmental & Physiological Drivers of Ciguatoxin Bioaccumulation in Herbivorous Fish from the Virgin Islands. Gulf of Mexico Graduate Student Symposium, Dauphin Island, Alabama, March 2-3, 2018. Poster.
3. Parsons, M.L. From Dino to Dinner: examining the transfer of BHAB toxins through the foodweb. Regional Workshop on Monitoring and Management Strategies for Benthic HABs. Musée océanographique - Monaco, 9th to 12th April, 2018.
4. Bennett, C., Robertson, A. Smith, T.B. Understanding the prevalence and distribution of Caribbean ciguatoxins in graysby grouper, Cephalopholis cruentata, from the U.S. Virgin Islands. 9th US HAB Symposium, Baltimore, Maryland, November 11-17, 2017. Poster.
5. DePaola, A., and Robertson, A. Industry Threats in Gulf States. Southwest Florida Shellfish Industry Workshop: Red Tide Stinks! Shellfish Industry Strategies for Dealing with Harmful Algal Blooms, Gulf Shellfish Institute and Florida Sea Grant, Bradenton, Florida; November 7-8th, 2017. Oral.
6. Hian, M.E., and M.L. Parsons. BIGDATA: Biogeographic indicators of Gambierdiscus diversity and temporal abundance in Florida Keys Patch Reefs. 9th U.S. Symposium on Harmful Algae, Baltimore, MD, November 11-17, 2017.
7. Hunt, B. L.; Baltzer, K. L.; Robertson, A. 2017 Bioaccumulation and Depuration of Caribbean Ciguatoxins in the Zebrafish, Danio rerio. 2017 Aquatic Sciences Meeting, Feb 26th-March 3rd, 2017 Honolulu, Hawaii.
8. Parsons, M.L., and E. Stanca. Gambierdiscus has neighbors: an examination of the epiphytic community cohabiting macrophyte hosts with Gambierdiscus. 9th U.S. Symposium on Harmful Algae, Baltimore, MD, November 11-17, 2017.
9. Robertson, A. 2017. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: Exposure Risks and Vulnerable Populations. Sponsored presentation at the Gordon Research Conference: Mycotoxins & Phycotoxins, Focus Area: “Understanding the Exposure and Global Health Risks Associated with Naturally Occurring Environmental Biotoxins in a Rapidly Changing World.” Jun 18-23rd, 2017, Easton, MA.
10. Robertson, A. 2017. Understanding the toxigenesis of ciguatera fish poisoning. Seminar and nationwide WEBEX for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. Pacific Regional. Feb 28th, 2017, Honolulu. Hawaii.
11. Sassenhagen, I., Y. Lozano-Duque, Y. Gao, and D.L. Erdner. Temporal and spatial population structure of Gambierdiscus caribaeus in the Greater Caribbean Region. ASLO 2017 Aquatic Sciences Meeting, February 26-March 3, 2017, Honolulu, HI.
12. Sassenhagen, I., Y. Lozano-Duque, Y. Gao and D.L. Erdner. High resolution temporal population genetic structure of Gambierdiscus caribaeus compared to spatial differentiation across the Greater Caribbean Region. Ninth Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., November 12-17, 2017. Baltimore MD.
13. Turner, A., Maskrey, B., Robertson, A. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning intoxication following consumption of Red Snapper in the United Kingdom. 6th International Symposium, Marine and Freshwater Toxins Analysis, Baiona, Spain; 22-25 October 2017.
14. Brewer, R., Ramseyer, T., Canals, M., Jossart, J., Smith, T.B. Swell as a high frequency driver of macroalgal cover and coral-algal interactions on Caribbean coral reefs. UVI Research Day, April 15, 2016.
15. Brewer, R.S., Ramseyer, T., Canals, M.F., Jossart, J.A., Smith, T.B. Swell as a high frequency driver of macroalgal cover and coral-algal interactions on Caribbean coral reefs. 13th International Coral Reef Symposium, Honolulu, Hawaii. Session 17, June 23, 2016.
16. Dzwonkowski, B., Robertson., A., Novoveska, L. Lockridge, G. 2016. Red tide bloom event in coastal Alabama: a physical perspective. Bays and Bayous; Nov. 30 -Dec. 1, 2016; Gulfport, Mississippi.
17. Gwinn, J., and Robertson, A. Understanding the fate of algal toxins in Caribbean reef herbivores. Texas A&M Ecological Integration Symposium, Corpus Christi, TX, March 31, 2016.
18. Gwinn, J., Robertson. A., Patterson. W, Smith, TB. (2016) Understanding trophic transfer of ciguatoxin precursors in herbivorous reef fish from st. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. Bays and Bayous, Gulfport, Mississippi. Gulf Estuarine Research Society Conference, Nov 3 - 5, 2016; Pensacola Beach, Florida.
19. Gwinn, J., Robertson. A., Patterson. W, Smith, TB. 2016. Understanding trophic transfer of ciguatoxin precursors in herbivorous reef fish from St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. Bays and Bayous; Nov. 30 -Dec. 1, 2016; Gulfport, Mississippi.
20. Leynse, A., Robertson, A. 2016. Understanding the functional role of secondary metabolites in benthic dinoflagellates: towards better management and monitoring. Bays and Bayous; Nov. 30 -Dec. 1, 2016; Gulfport, Mississippi.
21. Lozano-Duque, Y., D.L. Erdner, M.L. Richlen, D.M. Anderson and T.B. Smith. Development and validation of PCR-RFLP assay for identification of Gambierdiscus species in the Greater Caribbean Region. 17th International Conference on Harmful Algae, October 9-14, 2016, Florianopolis, Brazil.
22. Parsons, M.L., Anderson, D.M., Richlen, M.L., and A. Robertson. Development of a model to predict ciguatera fish poisoning outbreaks. The 17th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Florianópolis, Brazil, October 9-14, 2016.
23. Pitz, K.J., 2016. Phenotypic diversity within two toxic dinoflagellate genera: environmental and transcriptomic studies of species diversity in Alexandrium and Gambierdiscus. Doctoral dissertation defense, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, August 2, 2016.
24. Robertson, A., Novoveska, L., Walton, W., Dzwonkowski, B. 2016. Harmful algal blooms: crossing the boundaries of freshwater, estuarine, and coastal waters. Bays and Bayous. 30 -Dec. 1, 2016; Gulfport, Mississippi.
25. Sassenhagen, I. and D.L. Erdner. Microsatellite development for Gambierdiscus caribaeus and its application in the Greater Caribbean Region. 17th International Conference on Harmful Algae, October 9-14, 2016, Florianopolis, Brazil.
26. Anderson, D.M., Keynote talk, “Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Global Impacts, Trends, and New Tools for Monitoring and Management”, Ocean Outlook Workshop, Bergen Marine Research Cluster, Bergen, Norway, February, 2015.
27. Anderson, D.M., “HABs: Global impacts, trends, and new tools for monitoring and management”, Agriculture and Fisheries Conservation Department, Hong Kong, March, 2015.
28. Baltzer, K., Smith, T., Robertson, A. Using Ethovision to assess the behavioral effects of Caribbean ciguatoxin (C-CTX) in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Ethovision, Atlanta, GA. May 12, 2015.
29. Baltzer, K., Smith, T., Robertson, A. Investigating accumulation rates and sub-lethal behavioral effects of Caribbean ciguatoxin (C-CTX) on zebrafish (Danio rerio). 8th U.S. Harmful Algae Symposium, Long Beach, CA. November 14-18, 2015.
30. Brewer R., Smith T.B., Jossart J. “Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: long-term dynamics of Gambierdiscus on coral reefs in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands”. University of the Virgin Islands Research Day, April 9, 2015.
31. Ellsworth, A., and Parsons, M.L. Gambierdiscus on the move: how do tidal cycles and moon phases affect distribution? 8th Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., Long Beach, CA, November 16-19, 2015.
32. Furman, K., Richlen, M.L., Kulis, D., Sehein, T., Brosnahan, M., Keafer, B., Anderson, D. “Investigations of HAB ecology: My northeastern co-op experience” Speed talk and poster presentation at the WHOI summer student forum, Woods Hole, MA, August 2015.
33. Gwinn, J., and Robertson, A. Understanding the fate of algal toxins in Caribbean reef herbivores. National REU Conference, Maryland, October 26-28, 2015.
34. Klimek, B., Robertson, A., Patterson, W.F., and Parsons, M.L. Linking ciguatoxicity to the life history and ecology of red lionfish (Pterois volitans) in the Western Atlantic. U.S. Harmful Algae Symposium, Long Beach, CA, November, 14-18, 2015.
35. Leynse, A.K., and Parsons, M.L. Gambierdiscus: Managing excess cellular carbon – diversion to photoacclimation and photoprotection? 8th Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., Long Beach, CA, November 16-19, 2015.
36. Parsons, M.L., Richlen, M.L., Pitz, K., Anderson, D.M., Ellsworth, A., Leynse, A.K., Brandt, A.L., Association of Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean, Biannual Conference, Curacao, “How can the benthic behavior of Gambierdiscus influence ciguatera monitoring efforts?”, May 18-22, 2015.
37. Pitz, K., Richlen, M., Anderson, D.M. Development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) probes to detect and enumerate Gambierdiscus species, and analysis of tidepool populations in Wai ‘opae, Hawaii. Speed talk and poster presentation at the 8th US HAB Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., Long Beach, CA, November 16-19, 2015.
38. Robertson, A. 2015. Ecological Risk Assessment of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the US Virgin Islands. College of Arts and Sciences, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, October 9, 2015.
39. Robertson, A. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: Unraveling the complexity of prevalence, exposure, and risk. Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, University of Southern Mississippi, Ocean Springs, MS, October 30, 2015.
40. Sehein, T., Richlen, M.L., Zettler, E.R., Amaral-Zettler, L.A., Osborn, A., Anderson, D.M. Gambierdiscus migration and habitat colonization: role of substrate preference and prevalence in the water column. Poster presentation at the 8th US HAB Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S., Long Beach, CA, November 16-19, 2015.
41. Smith, T.B., Richlen, M.L., Robertson, A., Liefer, J.D., Anderson, D.M., Morris, Jr., J.G., Parsons, M.L., Association of Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean, Biannual Conference, Curacao, “Ciguatera fish poisoning: long-term dynamics of Gambierdiscus on coral reefs in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands.”, May 18-22, 2015.
42. Smith, T.B., Richlen ML, Robertson A, Liefer JD, Anderson DM, Morris Jr., JG, Parsons ML. “Ciguatera Fish Poisoning: long-term dynamics of Gambierdiscus on coral reefs in St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands”. National Science Foundation Virgin Islands Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research Annual Conference, Carambola Resort, St. Croix, May 27, 2015.
43. Stanca, E., and Parsons, M.L. Species and shape diversity of phytoplankton along spatial and temporal gradients in the Florida Keys. 13th European Ecological Federation and 25th Italian Society of Ecology Joint Conference, Rome, September 21-25, 2015.
44. Anderson, D.M., Keynote talk, First International Conference on Food Safety, Hong Kong, “Marine Biotoxins from Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): New Technologies and Approaches to Meet Monitoring Challenges”, June, 2014.
45. Anderson, D.M., Invited seminar “Red Tides and Harmful Algal Blooms: Impacts, Trends, and Linkages to Agriculture and Aquaculture”, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, October, 2014.
46. Brandt, A.L., Parsons, M.L., The 16th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Wellington, New Zealand, “Connections between HABs and coral reef phase shifts: investigating macroalgal growth dynamics.”, October 27-31, 2014.
47. Parsons, M.L., Brandt, A.L., Ellsworth, A., Leynse, A.K.. The 16th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Wellington, New Zealand, “Does Gambierdiscus really exhibit substrate preferences?”, October 27-31, 2014.
48. Pitz, K., Richlen, M.L., Smith, T.B., Parsons, M.L., Anderson, D.M. Shedding Light on Gambierdiscus Community Diversity: Development of Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) Probes to Detect and Enumerate Gambierdiscus Species. International Conference on Harmful Algae, October, 2014.
49. Anderson, D.M. Keynote speaker, Monitoring and Management of Red Tides and HABs, Bur Dubai, UAE. ICM conference - The Global Problem of Harmful Algal Blooms, November, 2013.
50. Castillo, B., Reale-Munroe, K., Robertson, A., and J. Rubattino. (2013) Preliminary Results: Screening of ciguatoxins in IndoPacific lionfish (Pterois volitans) in St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. Presented at the 66th Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Corpus Christi, TX November 4-8, 2013.
51. Eckert, R.J., Robertson, A., Loeffler, C., Hickerson, E.L., Johnston, M.A., and G.P. Schmahl. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Presented at the 66th Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Corpus Christi, TX November 4-8, 2013.
52. Ellsworth, A.M., Brandt, A.L., and M.L. Parsons. (2013).  Monitoring strategies for the ciguatera-causing benthic dinoflagellate,   Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S.  October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.
53. Flores Quintana, H.A., Robertson, A., and R.P. Kiene. (2013) Development and evaluation of a direct UPLC-MS/MS method for determination of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) in biological samples. Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S. October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.
54. Leynse, A.K., and M.L. Parsons. (2013).  Gambierdiscus nutrient uptake kinetics. Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S.  October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.
55. Liefer, J.D., Garcia, A.C., Smith, T., Quintana, H.A., Anderson, D.M., Richlen, M., and A. Robertson. (2013) Ecological and Environmental Factors Affecting Caribbean Ciguatoxins and their Trophic Transfer to Reef Dwelling Fishes. Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S. October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.
56. Loeffler, C.R., Olsen, D.A., and A. Robertson. (2013) Regional Survey of Caribbean Ciguatoxins in Commonly Marketed Fish From St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S. October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.
57. Parsons, M.L. Invited plenary, “Ciguatera: Will Poisoning Events Increase in the Future?”  15th Symposium on the Natural History of the Bahamas.  Gerace Research Centre, San Salvador, Bahamas, June 13-17, 2013.
58. Robertson, A., Grattan, L.M., Roberts, S., Liefer, J.D., Garcia, A.C., Flores Quintana, H.A., Hooe-Rollman, J.I., Abbott, M., Radke, E.G., and J.G. Morris. (2013) Linking fish to Human Illness: Confirmation of Ciguatera Fish Poisoning Cases from St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 2010-2012. Seventh Symposium on Harmful Algae in the U.S.  October 27 – 31, 2013.  Sarasota, FL.